History of the Mongolian state · 209 BC – 2026

Two thousand two hundred years of statehood

From the gold crown of the Xiongnu to today’s Government Palace. As you scroll, the map behind the text shifts to each era’s territory and its rulers appear beside it.

To the first chapter

Chapter I

The Ancient Nomadic States

On the Mongolian steppe, the idea of the state was born fourteen hundred years before Chinggis Khaan.

209 BC – 12th century AD

  1. 209 BC – AD 93

    The Xiongnu Empire

    In 209 BC Modu Chanyu united the nomadic tribes and founded the first state in Central Asia. He laid the foundations of the decimal system, the state seal and the principle that land is the foundation of the state, and concluded treaties with China's Han dynasty as an equal.

    Xiongnu gold crown, found in the Ordos region, 3rd century BC.

  2. 209 – 174 BC

    Modu Chanyu

    “Land is the foundation of the state — how could we give it away?” Modu Chanyu replied to the Donghu. Those words carry the core principle of Mongolian statehood for the next two thousand years.

    Statue of Modu Chanyu.

  3. 1st–6th centuries

    The Xianbei and the Rouran Khaganate

    The Xianbei grew powerful under Tanshihuai, and later the Rouran Khaganate (330–555) of the Yujiulü clan was founded. From this time dates the tradition of titling the head of state “Khagan”.

    Xiongnu carpet from the Noin-Ula tombs — the continuity of steppe art.

  4. 6th–9th centuries

    The Turkic and Uyghur Khaganates

    Centred on Mongolian lands, these states raised written culture (the Orkhon-Yenisei inscriptions) and urban life (Khar Balgas, Ordu-Baliq) to a high level in the Orkhon and Selenge valleys.

    Khar Balgas (Ordu-Baliq) — ruins of the Uyghur Khaganate's capital, Orkhon Valley.

  5. 744 – 840

    The Uyghur Khaganate

    The Uyghurs built the city of Ordu-Baliq in the Orkhon Valley and brought Silk Road trade, writing and religious pluralism to the steppe.

    The ruined walls of Ordu-Baliq today.

  6. 10th–12th centuries

    The Khitan Liao and Khamag Mongol

    The Mongolic Khitans founded the Liao dynasty, while in the 12th century Kabul Khan organised the Khamag Mongol state in the basins of the Kherlen, Onon and Tuul rivers — the direct forerunner of the Great Mongol State.

    Silver crown of the Khitan Liao dynasty.

Chapter II

The Great Mongol State and the World Empire

A single state proclaimed at the source of the Onon River grew, within ninety years, to stretch from the Pacific to the Danube.

1206 – 1368

  1. 1206

    The Founding of the Great Mongol State

    Temüjin united the nomadic tribes of the steppe, was proclaimed Chinggis Khaan at a kurultai at the source of the Onon River, and declared the Great Mongol State (Yeke Mongol Ulus).

    The Great Kurultai of 1206. Rashid al-Din's Jami' al-tawarikh, Herat, 15th century.

  2. 1206 – 1227

    Statecraft and Culture

    He enacted the Great Yasa, made the Uyghur-derived Mongolian script the script of state, and enshrined in law the Örtöö relay system and freedom of religion.

    Chinggis Khaan. Yuan imperial portrait album, 14th century. National Palace Museum, Taipei.

  3. 1229 – 1259

    Pax Mongolica

    Under Chinggis Khaan and his successors Ögedei, Güyük and Möngke, the realm expanded from the Pacific to the Danube. By securing the Silk Road, it linked trade, culture and diplomacy between East and West as never before.

    Ögedei Khan — founder of the capital, Karakorum. Yuan imperial portrait album.

  4. 1271 – 1368

    The Four Khanates and the Yuan Dynasty

    The empire came to exist as separate constituent realms: the Golden Horde, the Ilkhanate, the Chagatai Khanate and the Great Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) founded by Kublai Khan.

    Kublai Khan. By Anige, 1294.

Chapter III

Fragmentation and Manchu Rule

The empire fell apart, yet in the homeland its statehood, script and faith endured. Then came two centuries behind closed doors.

1368 – 1911

  1. 1368 – 17th century

    The Age of the Lesser Khans

    In 1368 Toghon Temür left Dadu and returned to the Mongol homeland, beginning the Northern Yuan and the age of the lesser khans. A struggle for power unfolded between the Eastern and Western (Oirat) Mongols.

    Memorial stele to Mandukhai Setsen Khatun. With Dayan Khan (Batmönkh), she reunited Mongolia in the late 15th century.

  2. 1479 – 1517

    Mandukhai and Dayan Khan

    Mandukhai the Wise (Mandukhai Setsen Khatun) and Dayan Khan (Batmönkh) reunited Mongolia in the late 15th century, bringing the Six Tümens under the rule of the Chinggisid line.

    Altan Khan — grandson of Dayan Khan and lord of the Tümed. He led the way in making the Gelug school the state religion.

  3. 16th–17th centuries

    The Spread of Gelug Buddhism

    In the 16th century, under Altan Khan and Abtai Sain Khan, the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism spread through Mongolia as the state religion. Öndör Gegeen Zanabazar was enthroned as the First Jebtsundamba Khutuktu and launched a renaissance in art and culture.

    Self-portrait of Öndör Gegeen Zanabazar.

  4. 1586

    Erdene Zuu

    Abtai Sain Khan founded Erdene Zuu Monastery on the ruins of ancient Karakorum — a new faith built on the stones of the old capital.

    Erdene Zuu Monastery, Kharkhorin.

  5. 1636 – 1911

    Under Manchu Rule

    Weakened by internal strife, Inner Mongolia (1636), Khalkha (the Dolonnuur assembly of 1691) and the Dzungar Khanate (1755–1758) fell one after another under the Manchu Qing dynasty. Cut off from the outside world, the Mongols lived under Manchu domination for more than 200 years.

    Outer and Inner Mongolia as part of the Qing dynasty.

Chapter IV

Independence Restored and the Socialist Era

After two centuries, the Mongols once again proclaimed a state of their own. The next seventy years were spent winning the world's recognition of that independence.

1911 – 1989

  1. 29 December 1911

    The National Liberation Revolution

    The Mongols overthrew Manchu rule, enthroned the 8th Jebtsundamba Khutuktu as Bogd Khan, and proclaimed the Bogd Khanate of Mongolia.

    The 8th Jebtsundamba Khutuktu — Bogd Khan of the Bogd Khanate of Mongolia.

  2. 1921 – 1924

    The People's Revolution and the Mongolian People's Republic

    Mongolia drove Chinese troops and Russian White Army forces from the country and secured its independence. On 26 November 1924 it adopted its first Constitution and proclaimed the Mongolian People's Republic.

    Damdin Sükhbaatar — leader of the 1921 People's Revolution.

  3. 1924

    The First Constitution

    The First State Great Khural debated and adopted the first Constitution, and Mongolia became one of the first republics in Asia.

    Delegates to the First State Great Khural, 1924.

  4. 1930 – 1945

    Defending Independence

    Mongolia endured the harsh years of the great political repressions of the 1930s. At the Battles of Khalkhin Gol in 1939, together with the USSR, it repelled Japanese aggression. Through the 1945 Yalta agreement and a nationwide referendum, Mongolia's citizens secured their independence.

    Khalkhin Gol, 1939: Kh. Choibalsan and G. Zhukov.

  5. 1961 – 1989

    Recognition and Social Transformation

    In 1961 Mongolia became a full member of the United Nations, winning recognition on the international stage. Universal literacy was achieved, and the modern foundations of healthcare, education, industry and urbanisation (Ulaanbaatar, Darkhan, Erdenet) were laid.

    Sükhbaatar Square, 1960s–70s.

Chapter V

Democratic Mongolia

A peaceful revolution that began on a winter square. The story goes on.

1990 – today

  1. 1990

    The Democratic Revolution

    Mongolia ended the one-party system and made a peaceful, bloodless transition to human rights, pluralism and a free-market economy.

    Demonstration near Sükhbaatar Square, 4 March 1990.

  2. 1992

    A New Constitution

    The Constitution of Mongolia renamed the country “Mongolia” and guaranteed parliamentary government, private property, and freedom of religion and of speech.

    President P. Ochirbat signing the 1992 Constitution.

  3. 21st century

    Modern Development

    Pursuing its “third neighbour” policy, Mongolia engages openly with countries around the world and is charting its 21st-century course through mining, digital transformation and the revival of its cultural heritage.

    Statue of Chinggis Khaan in front of the Government Palace, Ulaanbaatar.

Since 209 BC the map has changed many times. The idea of the state never broke.

Five chapters, 2,235 years

Back to the topImage sources
History guides

Read deeper: the people and turning points

The white stupa-lined walls and temples of Erdene Zuu Monastery at Kharkhorin

A Brief History of Mongolia

A brief history of Mongolia from the Xiongnu of 209 BC through Chinggis Khaan, Qing rule, 1911 independence and socialism to the 1990 democratic revolution.

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The granite stone turtle at the site of Karakorum in Kharkhorin, with the Orkhon Valley steppe behind

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The 40-metre stainless-steel Chinggis Khaan equestrian statue at Tsonjin Boldog under a clear blue sky

Genghis Khan / Чингис хаан

Genghis Khan, or Chinggis Khaan: Temüjin's early life, his rise to khan in 1206, his campaigns, the Secret History and his legacy and sites in Mongolia today.

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A traditional silk portrait of Kublai Khan

Kublai Khan / Хубилай хаан

Kublai Khan, Chinggis Khaan's grandson and founder of the Yuan dynasty: his rise, Khanbaliq and Xanadu, the Japan invasions, Marco Polo and his legacy.

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The Government Palace on Sükhbaatar Square, seat of Mongolia's parliament, with flags flying in front

Democracy in Mongolia

Democracy in Mongolia: the peaceful 1990 revolution, the 1992 constitution, and how the State Great Khural, government and president share power today.

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Sources

Where every image comes from

Every map and portrait comes from Wikimedia Commons; author and licence are listed below. Many of the maps (by Ktrinko) share one base map, so the transitions within a chapter look continuous.

  1. 01Territory of the Xiongnu Empire, c. 150 BCKtrinko / Natural Earth · CC0
  2. 02Xiongnu gold crown, Warring States periodGary Todd · CC0
  3. 03Statue of Modu ChanyuKoizumiBS · CC BY-SA 4.0
  4. 04Territory of the Rouran KhaganateKtrinko / Natural Earth · CC BY-SA 4.0
  5. 05Carpet from a Xiongnu tomb at Noin-UlaUnknown photographer · Public domain
  6. 06Territory of the First Turkic KhaganateKtrinko · CC BY-SA 4.0
  7. 07Ruins of Khar Balgas (Ordu-Baliq), Orkhon ValleyJames A. Glazier · CC BY-SA 3.0
  8. 08Territory of the Uyghur KhaganateKtrinko · CC BY-SA 4.0
  9. 09Territory of Khamag Mongol, 12th centuryKtrinko · CC BY-SA 4.0
  10. 10Silver crown of the Khitan Liao dynastyGary Todd · CC0
  11. 11Expansion of the Mongol Empire, 1206–1294DannamEmpire · CC BY 4.0
  12. 12Temüjin proclaimed Chinggis Khaan in 1206, from the Jami' al-tawarikhSayf al-Vahidi, Herat · Public domain
  13. 13Portrait of Chinggis Khaan, Yuan imperial portrait albumUnknown artist, 14th century · Public domain
  14. 14The four khanates of the Mongol EmpireLos Angeles County Museum of Art · Public domain
  15. 15Portrait of Ögedei Khan, Yuan imperial portrait albumUnknown artist, 14th century · Public domain
  16. 16Portrait of Kublai Khan, Yuan imperial portrait albumAnige, 1294 · Public domain
  17. 17Territory of the Northern YuanKtrinko / Natural Earth · CC BY-SA 4.0
  18. 18Memorial stele to Mandukhai Setsen KhatunPanoramix · GFDL
  19. 19Map of the Mongol states, 14th–17th centuriesKhiruge · CC BY-SA 4.0
  20. 20Portrait of Altan KhanUnknown artist · Public domain
  21. 21Self-portrait of Öndör Gegeen ZanabazarZanabazar · Public domain
  22. 22Erdene Zuu Monastery, KharkhorinDoron · GFDL
  23. 23Map of the Manchu Qing dynasty and the Mongol landsKallgan, Cartakes · CC BY-SA 3.0
  24. 24Map of Mongolia, 1996CIA World Factbook · Public domain
  25. 25The 8th Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, Bogd Khan of the Bogd Khanate of MongoliaUnknown photographer · Public domain
  26. 26Damdin SükhbaatarUnknown photographer · Public domain
  27. 27The First State Great Khural, which debated and adopted the first Constitution, 1924Unknown photographer · Public domain
  28. 28Kh. Choibalsan and G. Zhukov at Khalkhin Gol, 1939Ministry of Defence of the Russian Federation · CC BY 4.0
  29. 29Sükhbaatar Square, 1960s–70sUnknown photographer · CC0
  30. 30Pro-democracy demonstration near Sükhbaatar Square, 4 March 1990S. Amarsanaa · CC BY 4.0
  31. 31President P. Ochirbat signing the 1992 ConstitutionUnknown photographer · CC0
  32. 32Statue of Chinggis Khaan in front of the Government Palace, UlaanbaatarBernard Gagnon · CC0